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Consequentialism Deontology (Biomedical Ethics) Charles Lohman . New technology may provide the answer. The SlideShare family just got bigger. Design: When a service user is speaking to a health care professional it is important for them to listen properly, for example not looking around and yawning, instead make eye contact and ensuring body language looks engaging. Also, in certain situations, consequentialism can lead to decisions that are objectionable, even though the consequences are arguably good. mHealthIntelligence. Counselling and bespoke consulting programs to help you make better decisions and navigate complexity. The most famous version of this theory is utilitarianism. To demonstrate this I will use an adapted version of John Harris Survival Lottery thought experiment (this thought experiment is a theoretical example used to highlight the objection and is not to be taken literally): Let us imagine we have five patients who require organ transplants. Utilitarians claim that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness and that what is desirable is pleasure and the freedom from pain. (Feiser) Consequentialism says that the consequences of an action are all that matter when taking an ethical decision to act. Virtue ethics: focusing on the moral character, or . The lack of respect for the integrity of the individual is raised by Bernard Williams famous Jim and the Indians thought experiment, quoted above. What matters in this example is saving the highest number of lives, and how this is attained is unimportant. Deontology: Deontology : Advantages: This moral theory is very useful in making impartial decisions. The other way of thinking about the relationship is the focus of this paper. One of the consequences of a breach of confidentiality could be that the patient will lose trust in his/her doctor, and perhaps doctors generally, resulting in him/her not accessing healthcare in the future with a detrimental effect on his/her (and others?) From a consequentialist point of view it doesnt matter who commits the murder, merely the amount of lives lost in the end, so Jim would be just as responsible for the deaths as the captain is surely an absurd outcome. Accessed July 25, 2018. Learn more in our Cookie Policy. This basic form of consequentialism holds an action as ethical if and only if it produces more beneficial/pleasure-causing outcomes than negative/pain-causing ones. Utilitarianism would permit a doctor to allow Patient A to die and for their organs to be used to save the lives of the other five patients. A heavy man in a sweat-stained khaki shirt turns out to be the captain in charge and, after a good deal of questioning of Jim which establishes that he got there by accident while on a botanical expedition, explains that the Indians are a random group of the inhabitants who, after recent acts of protest against the government, are just about to be killed to remind other possible protestors of the advantages of not protesting. Blease had argued that patients' attention should be . Indeed, many We will describe some examples of the influence of consequentialism over current medical law. Given the exhaustion of most, if not all, negotiation and compromise within a diplomatic and political framework, the minority have two options: 1) rebellion till death; 2) subjugation till death. Consequentialism is the theory in moral philosophy that says our actions should aim at producing the best consequences. Accessed May 24, 2018. An interpretive exploratory study was undertaken, 11 registered acute care nurses working in a district general hospital in England were interviewed, using semi-structured interviews. Because it counted every persons pleasure or pain as the same, regardless of age, wealth, race, etc. MeSH Ethical considerations: Ethical approval was obtained from the local National Research Ethics Committee. arXiv. The result justifies the means are based on a consequentialism. The lack of respect for the integrity of the individual is raised by Bernard Williams' famous 'Jim and the . How can we perceive and address ethical challenges in public health practice and policy? By accepting, you agree to the updated privacy policy. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. Before Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. The standardized definition of Utilitarianism is that actions are defined as being "right" or "correct" based on the ability it has to promote happiness. For instance, most people would agree that lying is wrong. Computer-based recognition of dysmorphic faces. Accessed April 8, 2017. Benthams views are most closely aligned withact utilitarianism. As with any new health technology, careful attention should be paid to the accuracy and validity of FRT used in health care applications as well as to informed consent and reporting incidental findings to patients. Through alienating ourselves Railton shows that adopting ones exclusive ultimate end in life in the pursuit of maximum happiness may well prevent one from having experiences or engaging in certain sorts of commitments that are among the greatest sources of happiness (Alienation, Consequentialism and the Demands of Morality, Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1984). Get the latest inspiration, intelligence, events & more. Consequentialism is based on two principles: Whether an act is right or wrong depends only on the results of that act The more good consequences an act produces, the better or more right that act. Gates KA. Rather than taking into account our own attitudes towards an action, by taking an objective standpoint we are able to remove ourselves from our usual social groups and ideologies which affect the way in which we act and look at a situation, and instead we should act without bias. Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008, Pub L No. National Library of Medicine Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. Accessibility FOIA Consequentialism Consequentialism is an ethical theory that judges whether or not something is right by what its consequences are. For instance, most people would agree that lying is wrong. If this is demanded of all moral agents, then general unhappiness is likely to ensue rather than the opposite. According to non-consequentialism, the rightness of an action is not solely determined by its consequences. Tunkelang D. Ten things everyone should know about machine learning. 497 - 516. 2022 Jun;22:100717. doi: 10.1016/j.jemep.2021.100717. The consequentialism theory suggests that the correct moral response is related to the . Accessed January 13, 2018. As with any clinical innovation, FRT tools should be expected to demonstrate accuracy for specific uses and to demonstrate that overall benefits outweigh risks.26 Detecting and evaluating bias in data and results should also receive close ethical scrutiny.27 In machine learning, the quality of the results reflects the quality of data input to the system28an issue sometimes referred to as garbage in, garbage out. For example, when images used to train software are not drawn from a pool that is sufficiently racially diverse, the system may produce racially biased results.29 If this happens, FRT diagnostics might not work as well for some racial or ethnic groups as others. Employers might also be interested in using FRT tools to predict mood or behavior as well as to predict longevity, particularly for use in wellness programs to lower employers health care costs. One World Identity. Pharmacy (Basel). One problem with the theory is that it can be hard to measure different benefits to decide which one is morally preferable. Act consequentialism is the claim that an act is morally right if and only if that act maximizes the good, that is, if and only if the total amount of good for all minus the total amount of bad for all is greater than this net amount for any incompatible act available to the agent on that occasion. Stephen ID, Hiew V, Coetzee V, Tiddeman BP, Perrett DI. Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, Pub L No. April 11, 2017. https://www.technologyreview.com/s/604087/the-dark-secret-at-the-heart-of-ai/. There are two broad schools of ethical theory: consequentialism and non-consequentialism. Sandolu A. It is frequently maintained that an exclusively consequentialist morality uniquely possesses certain advantages; I shall argue that the case for the superiority of consequentialism has yet to be made out. Although there are references to this idea in the works of ancient philosopherEpicurus, its closely associated with English philosopherJeremy Bentham. Would you like email updates of new search results? (Cf. Christianity is one form of deontology and the Ten Commandments represent one set of rules. Aims: The foregoing are just a sample of the ethical approaches a healthcare professional may adopt in practice and it may be argued that there are three main moral theories from which these approaches may, in part, spring, namely virtue ethics, deontology and consequentialism. Nurses use these in contributing to the resolution of these dilemmas. Consequentialism is a normative ethical theory, which means, it is a theory about ethical action and a proposed method for deciding how one should choose the right ethical act. The relatively small, single-site sample may not account for the effects of organisational culture on the results; the findings suggested that professional relationships were key to resolving ethical dilemmas. https://mhealthintelligence.com/news/ehr-provider-touts-mhealth-access-by-apples-facial-recognition-app. 2021 Jul-Aug;42(4):787-791. doi: 10.1016/j.gerinurse.2021.04.020. Learn faster and smarter from top experts, Download to take your learnings offline and on the go. Would you like email updates of new search results? A requirement to uphold the confidentiality of information shared in the physician-patient relationship is a central tenet of medical professionalism that, while at risk and undermined in various ways in modern medicine [1], has been consistently endorsed from the time of Hippocrates. Let us take the example of a minority being oppressed in a country. Consequentialism is sometimes criticized because it can be difficult, or even impossible, to know what the result of an action will be ahead of time. The committee evaluates the impact of relationships on health care. By asking us to maximise benefit for the largest number of people (or, for Peter Singer and other preference utilitarians, creatures who have preferences), we set aside our personal biases and self-interest to benefit others. Daniel Schiff, MS and Jason Borenstein, PhD, Confidentiality/Duty to protect confidential information, https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320316.php, https://www.wired.com/2017/01/computers-can-tell-glance-youve-got-genetic-disorders/, http://www.mobihealthnews.com/content/fdna-launches-app-based-tool-clinicians-using-facial-recognition-ai-and-genetic-big-data, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/can-your-face-reveal-how-long-youll-live-new-technology-may-provide-the-answer/2014/07/02/640bacb4-f748-11e3-a606-946fd632f9f1_story.html, https://medcitynews.com/2016/01/aicure-fundraise/, https://mhealthintelligence.com/news/ehr-provider-touts-mhealth-access-by-apples-facial-recognition-app, https://medium.com/ibm-watson-data-lab/keeping-your-machine-learning-models-up-to-date-f1ead546591b, https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2017/09/06/ten-things-everyone-should-know-about-machine-learning, https://undark.org/article/facial-recognition-technology-biased-understudied/, https://medium.com/@blaisea/do-algorithms-reveal-sexual-orientation-or-just-expose-our-stereotypes-d998fafdf477, https://www.technologyreview.com/s/604087/the-dark-secret-at-the-heart-of-ai/, http://www.clinicalinformaticsnews.com/2017/10/06/3d-facial-recognition-gives-healthcare-data-a-new-look.aspx, https://oneworldidentity.com/google-takes-aim-controversial-stringent-illinois-biometric-privacy-law/, https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/privacy/special-topics/de-identification/index.html. Even if the damage to Jims integrity is taken into account, there is another problem: the consequentialist would regard Jims killing another person not merely as preferable, but as morally required. JONAS Healthc Law Ethics Regul. The pros and cons of utilitarianism show us that there is a time and place where these principles offer a potential benefit to society. I discuss this possibility briefly, and then set it aside. 5 Health Care Ethics - Critical Issues for the 21st Century; Eileen E. Morrison ; About the . This was his theory of rule utilitarianism. . One doctor speaking to the Business Insider claimed: "If you had, let's say, an ICU that was overwhelmed, you're probably going to try and give some extra attention to healthcare workers because you need them to deliver care," he said. Whilst the drowning child example seems to support the existence of negative responsibility, it differs in that there are no commitments or beliefs preventing us from saving the child. Participants were recruited from all settings working with patients of any age and any diagnosis. Looks like youve clipped this slide to already. Biom Technol Today. In this case, they would argue that welfare would be maximised by giving the last ventilator to the 20 year old. Ghaemi SN, Goodwin FK. Facial shape analysis identifies valid cues to aspects of physiological health in Caucasian, Asian, and African populations. Understanding different ethical theories can have a number of significant benefits, which have the potential to shape and inform the care of patients, challenge bad practice and lead staff to. Certainly, the use of utilitarian ethics in medical contexts is not without controversy and this is something which we shall next by looking at a well-known objection to utilitarianism using a thought experiment: The objection is that by only focusing on objectively promoting the greatest good, utilitarians can permit and indeed claim that certain actions, which appear morally wrong, are in fact the right action. Free access to premium services like Tuneln, Mubi and more. (Though, most versions of non-consequentialism allow some ethical relevance of consequences). Participants and context: Participants were interviewed about their contribution to the resolution of ethical dilemmas within the context of working in an acute hospital ward. Events and interactive experiences exploring ethics of being human. Indeed, society as a whole is more important than any one person in the eyes of a Utilitarian. The word deontology derives from the Greek words for duty ( deon) and science (or study) of ( logos ). Conclusion: 01 December 2016. Int J Lang Commun Disord. Is a theory of moral obligation their proponent puts it forth as a framework within which a person can correctly determine, on any given occasion, what he or she (morally) ought to do [ 2 ]. MeSH Borsos Z, Gyori M. Can automated facial expression analysis show differences between autism and typical functioning? PHI 204 - Ethical Issues in Health Care: Consequentialism, Deontology 1. The oppressors force is relentless to crush the minority rebellion, and the repressive measures adopted in retaliation is specifically for the purpose of forcing the minority to subjugation under its iron fist and crush the rebellion to render the minority weak in the future. The effects of a person's actions judge if it was right or wrong. PHI 204 - Ethical Issues in Health Care: Consequentialism, Deontology, Physical Education and Health Education Faculty. Williams example shows that consequentialism disregards the agents own personal commitments and allows for negative responsibility. such as consequentialism, virtue ethics . According to non-consequentialism, the rightness of an action is not solely determined by its consequences. Facial recognition technology (FRT) utilizes software to map a persons facial characteristics and then store the data as a face template.1 Algorithms or machine learning techniques are applied to a database to compare facial images or to find patterns in facial features for verification or authentication purposes.2 FRT is attractive for a variety of health care applications, such as diagnosing genetic disorders, monitoring patients, and providing health indicator information (related to behavior, aging, longevity, or pain experience, for example).3-5, FRT is likely to become a useful tool for diagnosing many medical and genetic conditions.6,7 Machine learning techniques, in which a computer program is trained on a large data set to recognize patterns and generates its own algorithms on the basis of learning,8 have already been used to assist in diagnosing a patient with a rare genetic disorder that had not been identified after years of clinical effort.9 Machine learning can also detect more subtle correlations between facial morphology and genetic disorders than clinicians.4 It is thought that FRT can therefore eventually be used to assist in earlier detection and treatment of genetic disorders,10,11 and computer applications (commonly known as apps) such as Face2Gene have been developed to assist clinicians in diagnosing genetic disorders.12, FRT has other potential health care applications. But if telling a lie would help save a persons life, consequentialism says its the right thing to do. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help In this example: A hospital has limited capacity to deal with Covid-19 patients and is having to decide between admitting a 20 year old patient, who is fit and well, and a 75 year old patient, who has a history of heart disease, to their last available ventilator. According to consequentialism, the right act is that act which has the best consequences. Taking an impersonal standpoint leads to alienation; this is the state of someone who has become separated from their commitments to themselves and others. The same could be said for Jim who by doing nothing is responsible for the lives of the twenty Indians. Weve updated our privacy policy so that we are compliant with changing global privacy regulations and to provide you with insight into the limited ways in which we use your data. Williams furthers this explanation; making the best of a bad job is one of its maxims, and it will have something to say even on the difference between massacring seven million, and massacring seven million and one (Consequentialism and its Critics, 1988). Healthcare workers often face a problem of decision - making. Mack H. FDNA launches app-based tool for clinicians using facial recognition, AI and genetic big data to improve rare disease diagnosis and treatment. Accessed October 26, 2018. Epub 2021 Sep 1. X. A few states, such as Illinois, have regulations that limit uses for which consumer biometric data can be collected.36 The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) governs handling of patients health records and personal health information and includes privacy protections for personally identifiable information. [4] Consequentialism Brittany Hollister, PhD and Vence L. Bonham, JD, Ethical Dimensions of Using Artificial Intelligence in Health Care. If consequentialism is to take a hedonistic approach that we should act so as to maximise overall happiness then it results in a contradiction. 2022 Jan 6;10(1):12. doi: 10.3390/pharmacy10010012. Killing the one Indian is going to have a profound effect on Jims life but for the consequentialist, Jims values are irrelevant. Especially in India the incidence of birth defects, cancers and diseases related to skin, lungs, brain, kidneys and liver are several times more dominant than any other communities.8 The river drainage has significant influence on the land use and socio-economic fabric of the basin. In broad terms, a hedonist is someone who tries to maximise pleasure and minimise pain. Accessed July 17, 2018. FRT is being developed to predict health characteristics, such as longevity and aging. John Stuart Mill, a student of Benthams, disagreed. Ethics Med Public Health. He is likely to have his own commitments in which murder (rather than letting others die) would go against his most fundamental beliefs. Utilitarianism is one of the forms of consequentialism that states that everything has a consequence. Ethical decision making in nurses. Consequentialism is a theory that says whether something is good or bad depends on its outcomes. You must recall and relate knowledge of how the professionals in the case studies promote equality and diversity and the skills and attributes needed to do this.. 25 (4). This site needs JavaScript to work properly. By saying that Jim should shoot the one Indian the consequentialist fails to take into account the impact that this would have on Jims life. Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. Researchers flag up facial recognition racial bias [news]. MedCity News. Immanuel Kant started developing deontology after he was inspired by the movement called the Enlightenment, which emphasized human reason and individual autonomy. For consequentialism, life is a numbers game; an action should aim to make the majority happy, regardless of who they are, and should aim to go for actions that produce minimal pain. As the saga unfolds we are to monitor, measure and maximise the consequences for the greater good of the larger number. Protecting your patients interests in the era of big data, artificial intelligence, and predictive analytics. Implementing machine learning in health careaddressing ethical challenges. Accessibility No one desires the strife of war in life, but it is sometimes necessary and morally justified to engage in war. Consequentialism is a rival to such moral theories as deontology, contractualism, and virtue ethics. Surgical nurses' perceptions of ethical dilemmas, moral distress and quality of care. The peace that seems within reach, the reduction of gun related crimes and homicides, the dream of borderless territories and the future of a society that bears the fertile ground of excellence and achievement, can now be balanced on the spectrum of consequentialism. Philos Public Aff. Robert M. Taylor, in Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 2013 Deontology. We will discuss three common ethical theories and how it handle the case of truth telling in medical practice as an example. A novel approach to the detection of acromegaly: accuracy of diagnosis by automatic face classification. Our Biometric Future: Facial Recognition Technology and the Culture of Surveillance. Putting ethics at the centre of everyday life. So, to decide whether or not to take some step, we must calculate whether it will produce the best overall outcome for the highest number of people. Cachn-Prez JM, Gonzalez-Villanueva P, Rodriguez-Garcia M, Oliva-Fernandez O, Garcia-Garcia E, Fernandez-Gonzalo JC. If you dont, you should be held partly responsible for the childs death. PART 1 . In: Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE 28th Canadian Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering (CCECE); May 3-6, 2015; Halifax, Canada:1199-1202. Shakya S, Sharma S, Basnet A. On the other, FRT medication adherence monitoring might not be sufficiently effective in improving adherence to outweigh the risk of undermining trust in the patient-physician relationship.42. To identify the contribution made by nurses in achieving the resolution of ethical dilemmas in practice. Loos HS, Wieczorek D, Wrtz, RP, von der Malsburg C, Horsthemke B. Schneider HJ, Kosilek RP, Gnther M, et al. For the consequentialist it is obvious that the right choice for Jim would be to kill one Indian in order to save the lives of the other nineteen. The simplest form of consequentialism is classical (or hedonistic) utilitarianism, which asserts that an action is right or wrong according to whether it maximizes the net balance of pleasure over pain in the universe. So what exactly is wrong with it? Use and Significance of Nursing Diagnosis in Hospital Emergencies: A Phenomenological Approach. PMC It means any ethical theory which judges the rightness or wrongness of an action on whether or not the outcome is good or bad. Federal Privacy Protections: Ethical Foundations, Sources of Confusion in Clinical Medicine, and Controversies in Biomedical Research, Mary Anderlik Majumder, JD, PhD and Christi J. Guerrini, JD. Clearly it is an abhorrent thought that an individual would be sacrificed simply to promote overall welfare in complete disregard for their life. In this way, consequentialism ethics provide criteria for the moral evaluation of actions, while also recommending rules or decision-making criteria for future actions. Nurs Ethics. Broader influence of FRT. AWB. The viewpoints expressed in this article are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the AMA. Also, it is advantageous because there is no guesswork; the physician does not have to predictconsequences because while . MIT Technology Review. Should Electronic Health Record-Derived Social and Behavioral Data Be Used in Precision Medicine Research? http://arxiv.org/abs/1403.0485. The Survival Lottery thought experiment highlights that there are actions which we consider morally right or wrong regardless of the amount of happiness or welfare produced. 1992 Fall;21(4):354-89. health goal (including socioeconomic goals) identified by a legitimate public health authority. Examining hospital staff members' preferences for allocating a ventilator to a COVID-19 patient with and without Alzheimer's disease. But Jim has to actively kill someone unlike the duck feeder for whom the only bad consequences are that he will get wet and muddy. Human behavior prediction using facial expression analysis. Chan School of Public Health. Automated depression diagnosis based on facial dynamic analysis and sparse coding. 2007;2(1):26. There are several varieties of utilitarianism. Abbasinia M, Norouzadeh R, Adib-Hajbaghery M, Nasiri MA, Sharifipour E, Koohpaei A, Eskandari N, Aghaie B. First, as it is the general performance of all people that is collectively coordinated to promote the overall good, rule-consequentialism may distribute a fair share of the burden to all participants in society (Mulgan 2001, p. 54). 101-336, 104 Stat 327. National Library of Medicine Rule-consequentialism avoids a number of problems which have caused trouble to act-consequentialists. Some statutes that protect health information might not apply to FRT. Consequentialism claims that whether an action is right or wrong depends on the consequences that it brings about. It emphasises four key ethical principles of autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice, which are shared by most ethical theories, and blends these with virtues and practical wisdom. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. An official website of the United States government. We've updated our privacy policy. See Page 1. Submit a manuscript for peer review consideration. Basel-Vanagaite L, Wolf L, Orin M, et al. Accessed December 10, 2018. Imagine you are in your local park feeding the ducks on the pond when you hear a loud splash; a child has fallen into the pond and is struggling to swim. Applying Utilitarianism in Business. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies For a theory often touted as promoting happiness, this is a problem. 2005 Oct;25(5):312-27. Epub 2021 May 4. and transmitted securely. March 21, 2017. http://www.mobihealthnews.com/content/fdna-launches-app-based-tool-clinicians-using-facial-recognition-ai-and-genetic-big-data. The most famous form of consequentialist ethics is utilitarianism which was first proposed by Jeremy Bentham and then furthered by John Stuart Mill in the 19th century. Reimagining Medical Education in the Age of AI, Steven A. Wartman, MD, PhD and C. Donald Combs, PhD. Public health ethics only began to gain prominence as a distinct field within bioethics around the year 2000 and its proponents have had the task of defining it as distinct from medical ethics due to the distinct nature of public health (e.g., Childress et al., 2002, p. 170; Dawson, 2011, p. 1; Upshur, 2002, p. 101).